NASA CAHTY PACIFIC LLC

EMPEROR TOM NELSON CERTIFIED TRILLIONAIRE NETWORK COMP:4938 MARKET CAP:$951,300TRILIO

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Account

THE. : THE PRESIDENT GREAT EMPEROR UN CHIEF TYRANT DICTATOR

# ROAYL PRINCE CROWN PRINCE 193 Country Population
(2020) Land Area
(Km²) Density
(P/Km²)
1 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Afghanistan.LLC 38,928,346 652,860 60
2 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Albania.LLC 2,877,797 27,400 105
3 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Algeria.LLC 43,851,044 2,381,740 18
4 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Andorra.LLC 77,265 470 164
5 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Angola.LLC 32,866,272 1,246,700 26
6 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Antigua and Barbuda 97,929 440 223
7 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Argentina.LLC 45,195,774 2,736,690 17
8 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Armenia.LLC 2,963,243 28,470 104
9 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-.LLC Australia 25,499,884 7,682,300 3
10 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Austria.LLC 9,006,398 82,409 109
11 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Azerbaijan.LLC 10,139,177 82,658 123
12 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Bahamas.LLC 393,244 10,010 39
13 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Bahrain.LLC 1,701,575 760 2,239
14 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Bangladesh.LLC 164,689,383 130,170 1,265
15 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Barbados.LLC 287,375 430 668
16 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Belarus.LLC 9,449,323 202,910 47
17 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Belgium.LLC 11,589,623 30,280 383
18 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Belize.LLC 397,628 22,810 17
19 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Benin.LLC 12,123,200 112,760 108
20 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Bhutan.LLC 771,608 38,117 20
21 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Bolivia.LLC 11,673,021 1,083,300 11
22 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Bosnia and Herzegovina 3,280,819 51,000 64
23 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Botswana.LLC 2,351,627 566,730 4
24 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Brazil.LLC 212,559,417 8,358,140 25
25 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Brunei.LLC 437,479 5,270 83
26 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Bulgaria.LLC 6,948,445 108,560 64
27 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Burkina Faso 20,903,273 273,600 76
28 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Burundi.LLC 11,890,784 25,680 463
29 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Côte d'Ivoire.LLC 26,378,274 318,000 83
30 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Cabo Verde.LLC 555,987 4,030 138
31 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Cambodia.LLC 16,718,965 176,520 95
32 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Cameroon.LLC 26,545,863 472,710 56
33 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Canada.LLC 37,742,154 9,093,510 4
34 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Central African Republic 4,829,767 622,980 8
35 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Chad.LLC 16,425,864 1,259,200 13
36 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Chile.LLC 19,116,201 743,532 26
37 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- China.LLC 1,439,323,776 9,388,211 153
38 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Colombia.LLC 50,882,891 1,109,500 46
39 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Comoros.LLC 869,601 1,861 467
40- ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Congo (Congo-Brazzaville) 5,518,087 341,500 16
41 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Costa Rica.LLC 5,094,118 51,060 100
42 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-Croatia.LLC
4,105,267 55,960 73
43 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Cuba.LLC 11,326,616 106,440 106
44 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Cyprus.LLC 1,207,359 9,240 131
45 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Czechia (Czech Republic) 10,708,981 77,240 139
46 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Democratic Republic of the Congo 89,561,403 2,267,050 40
47 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Denmark.LLC 5,792,202 42,430 137
48 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Djibouti.LLC 988,000 23,180 43
49 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Dominica.LLC 71,986 750 96
50 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Dominican Republic.LLC 10,847,910 48,320 225
51 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Ecuador.LLC 17,643,054 248,360 71
52 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Egypt.LLC 102,334,404 995,450 103
53 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- El Salvador.LLC 6,486,205 20,720 313
54 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Equatorial Guinea.LLC 1,402,985 28,050 50
55 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Eritrea.LLC 3,546,421 101,000 35
56 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Estonia.LLC 1,326,535 42,390 31
57 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Eswatini (fmr. "Swaziland") 1,160,164 17,200 67
58 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Ethiopia.LLC 114,963,588 1,000,000 115
59 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Fiji.LLC 896,445 18,270 49
60 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Finland.LLC 5,540,720 303,890 18
61 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-France.LLC
65,273,511 547,557 119
62 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Gabon.LLC 2,225,734 257,670 9
63 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Gambia.LLC 2,416,668 10,120 239
64 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Georgia.LLC 3,989,167 69,490 57
65 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Germany.LLC 83,783,942 348,560 240
66 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Ghana.LLC 31,072,940 227,540 137
67 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Greece.LLC 10,423,054 128,900 81
68 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Grenada.LLC 112,523 340 331
69 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Guatemala.LLC 17,915,568 107,160 167
70 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Guinea.LLC 13,132,795 245,720 53
71 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Guinea-Bissau.LLC 1,968,001 28,120 70
72 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Guyana.LLC 786,552 196,850 4
73 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Haiti.LLC 11,402,528 27,560 414
74 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Holy See.LLC 801 0 2,003
75 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Honduras.LLC 9,904,607 111,890 89
76 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Hungary.LLC 9,660,351 90,530 107
77 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Iceland.LLC 341,243 100,250 3
78 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- India.LLC 0 2,973,190 0
79 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Indonesia.LLC 273,523,615 1,811,570 151
80 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Iran.LLC 83,992,949 1,628,550 52
81 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Iraq.LLC 40,222,493 434,320 93
82 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Ireland.LLC 4,937,786 68,890 72
83 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-Israel.LLC
8,655,535 21,640 400
84 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Italy.LLC 60,461,826 294,140 206
85 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Jamaica.LLC 2,961,167 10,830 273
86 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Japan.LLC 126,476,461 364,555 347
87 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Jordan.LLC 10,203,134 88,780 115
88 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Kazakhstan.LLC 18,776,707 2,699,700 7
89 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Kenya.LLC 53,771,296 569,140 94
90 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Kiribati.LLC 119,449 810 147
91 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Kuwait.LLC 4,270,571 17,820 240
92 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Kyrgyzstan 6,524,195 191,800 34
93 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Laos 7,275,560 230,800 32
94 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Latvia.LLC 1,886,198 62,200 30
95 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Lebanon.LLC 6,825,445 10,230 667
96 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Lesotho.LLC 2,142,249 30,360 71
97 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Liberia.LLC 5,057,681 96,320 53
98 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Libya.LLC 6,871,292 1,759,540 4
99 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Liechtenstein.LLC 38,128 160 238
100 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-Lithuania.LLC 2,722,289 62,674 43
101 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Luxembourg.LLC 625,978 2,590 242
102 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Madagascar.LLC 27,691,018 581,795 48
103 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Malawi.LLC 19,129,952 94,280 203
104 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Malaysia.LLC 32,365,999 328,550 99
105 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Maldives.LLC 540,544 300 1,802
106 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Mali.LLC 20,250,833 1,220,190 17
107 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Malta.LLC 441,543 320 1,380
108 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Marshall Islands.LLC 59,190 180 329
109 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Mauritania.LLC 4,649,658 1,030,700 5
110 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Mauritius.LLC 1,271,768 2,030 626
111 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Mexico.LLC 128,932,753 1,943,950 66
112 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Micronesia.LLC 548,914 700 784
113 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Moldova.LLC 4,033,963 32,850 123
114 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Monaco.LLC 39,242 1 26,337
115 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Mongolia.LLC 3,278,290 1,553,560 2
116 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Montenegro.LLC 628,066 13,450 47
117 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Morocco.LLC 36,910,560 446,300 83
118 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Mozambique.LLC 31,255,435 786,380 40
119 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Myanmar (formerly Burma) 54,409,800 653,290 83
120 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Namibia.LLC 2,540,905 823,290 3
121 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Nauru.LLC 10,824 20 541
122 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Nepal.LLC 29,136,808 143,350 203
123 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Netherlands.LLC 17,134,872 33,720 508
124 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- New Zealand.LLC 4,822,233 263,310 18
125 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Nicaragua.LLC 6,624,554 120,340 55
126 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Niger.LLC 24,206,644 1,266,700 19
127 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Nigeria.LLC 206,139,589 910,770 226
128 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- North Korea.LLC 25,778,816 120,410 214
129 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- North Macedonia.LLC 2,083,374 25,220 83
130 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Norway.LLC 5,421,241 365,268 15
131 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Oman.LLC 5,106,626 309,500 16
132 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Pakistan.LLC 220,892,340 770,880 287
133 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Palau.LLC 18,094 460 39
134 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Palestine State.LLC 5,101,414 6,020 847
135 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Panama.LLC 4,314,767 74,340 58
136 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Papua New Guinea.LLC 8,947,024 452,860 20
137 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Paraguay 7,132,538 397,300 18
138 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Peru.LLC 32,971,854 1,280,000 26
139 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Philippines.LLC 109,581,078 298,170 368
140 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Poland.LLC 37,846,611 306,230 124
141 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Portugal.LLC 10,196,709 91,590 111
142 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Qatar.LLC 2,881,053 11,610 248
143 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Romania.LLC 19,237,691 230,170 84
144 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Russia.LLC 145,934,462 16,376,870 9
145 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Rwanda.LLC 12,952,218 24,670 525
146 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Saint Kitts and Nevis.LLC 53,199 260 205
147 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Saint Lucia.LLC 183,627 610 301
148 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 110,940 390 284
149 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Samoa.LLC 198,414 2,830 70
150 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-San Marino.LLC
33,931 60 566
151 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Sao Tome and Principe.LLC 219,159 960 228
152 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Saudi Arabia.LLC 34,813,871 2,149,690 16
153 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-Senegal.LLC
16,743,927 192,530 87
154 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Serbia.LLC 8,737,371 87,460 100
155 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Seychelles.LLC 98,347 460 214
156 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Sierra Leone.LLC 7,976,983 72,180 111
157 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Singapore.LLC 5,850,342 700 8,358
158 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Slovakia.LLC 5,459,642 48,088 114
159 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-Slovenia.LLC
2,078,938 20,140 103
160 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-Solomon Islands.LLC
686,884 27,990 25
161 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Somalia.LLC 15,893,222 627,340 25
162 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-South Africa.LLC
59,308,690 1,213,090 49
163 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- South Korea.LLC 51,269,185 97,230 527
164 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- South Sudan.LLC 11,193,725 610,952 18
165 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Spain.LLC 46,754,778 498,800 94
166 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Sri Lanka.LLC 21,413,249 62,710 341
167 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Sudan.LLC 43,849,260 1,765,048 25
168 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Suriname.LLC 586,632 156,000 4
169 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Sweden.LLC 10,099,265 410,340 25
170 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Switzerland.LLC 8,654,622 39,516 219
171 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Syria.LLC 17,500,658 183,630 95
172 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Tajikistan.LLC 9,537,645 139,960 68
173 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-Tanzania.LLC
59,734,218 885,800 67
174 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-Thailand.LLC
69,799,978 510,890 137
175 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Timor-Leste.LLC 1,318,445 14,870 89
176 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Togo.LLC 8,278,724 54,390 152
177 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Tonga.LLC 105,695 720 147
178 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Trinidad and Tobago.LLC 1,399,488 5,130 273
179 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Tunisia.LLC 11,818,619 155,360 76
180 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Turkey.LLC 84,339,067 769,630 110
181 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Turkmenistan.LLC 6,031,200 469,930 13
182 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Tuvalu.LLC 11,792 30 393
183 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Uganda.LLC 45,741,007 199,810 229
184 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Ukraine.LLC 43,733,762 579,320 75
185 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- United Arab Emirates.LLC 9,890,402 83,600 118
186 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- United Kingdom.LLC 67,886,011 241,930 281
187 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- United States of America 331,002,651 9,147,420 36
188 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Uruguay.LLC 3,473,730 175,020 20
189 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Uzbekistan.LLC 33,469,203 425,400 79
190 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Vanuatu.LLC 307,145 12,190 25
191 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Venezuela.LLC 28,435,940 882,050 32
192 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Vietnam.LLC 97,338,579 310,070 314
193 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Yemen.LLC 29,825,964 527,970 56
194 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF-Zambia.LLC
18,383,955 743,390 25
195 ROYAL-PRINCE-OF- Zimbabwe.LLC 14,862,924 386,850 38

THE GREAT EMPEROR TOM NELSON UN CHIEF NATO CHIEF EU CHIEF WORLD UNION CHIEF EUROPEAN UNION CHIEF THE RUSSIAN AMERICAN ZAR TZAR TYRANT DICTATOR PRESIDENT OF UNITED STATES 193 NATIONS THE CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCH OF 193 NATIONS 220 DEPENDENCIES AND TERRITORIALS KING TO 193 NATIONS CONSTITUTIONAL MONARCH OF 193 NATIONS

Thanks,
THE GREAT EMPEROR TOM NELSON
UN CHIEF NATO CHIEF EU CHIEF WORLD UNION CHIEF EUROPEAN UNION CHIEF TZAR TYRANT DICTATOR
PRESIDENT OF UNITED STATES 193 NATIONS

TOM NELSON BSEE, REB
NASA TSA INC. HQ
(ADMIRAL HOUSE)
CEO Administrator at NASA - National
Aeronautics and Space Administration
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TIMELINE OF THE HUMAN CONDITION— Milestones in Evolution and History — Years ago Event⇑ BCE CE ⇓ discs fill with colour as time passes towards the present (further explanation below ⇓)I. COSMOLOGICAL ANTECEDENTS13,800,000,000 Big Bang singularity, creation of all particles of matter and counterpart antimatter, and the laws of physics governing their interactions; expansion and cooling of space → formation of the observable Universe, its galaxies, solar systems, stars, planets, moons, asteroids and comets13,550,000,000 ignition of hydrogen stars, bathing the Universe in first light of cosmic dawn → earliest galaxies of stars forming 400 million years after the Big Bang; helium in stars fusing into carbon, leading to stellar nucleosynthesis of all elements13,000,000,000 aggregation of stars into the Milky Way galaxy: now a warped disc of 100 billion stars, one of 2 trillion galaxies in the observable Universe12,200,000,000 earliest water: an interstellar vapour, and repository for oxygen4,570,000,000 formation of the Sun and Solar System within the Milky Way, orbiting a supermassive black hole, Sagittarius A*, at its Galactic Centre every 220 million years4,510,000,000 formation of the Moon from a giant impact with proto-Earth4,500,000,000 formation of planet Earth with 510 million km² of surface area, orbiting the Sun on a yearly cycle, rotating eastward on a daily cycle around a tilted axis that perpetuates opposing polar seasons4,400,000,000 formation of Earth’s oceans and moist atmosphere, protected from solar wind and cosmic rays by Earth’s magnetosphere generated by its iron core4,400,000,000 earliest subduction of Earth’s crust → continental plate tectonics by 3 billion years ago, unique to Earth in the Solar System4,300,000,000 basaltic rock glass catalyses synthesis of RNA (Hadean Eon): long-strand molecules carrying information across self-replicating generations and synthesising peptide proteins → pre-biotic RNA worldII. HUMAN ANCESTRY AND EVOLUTION1. Evolution of life on Earth4,000,000,000 earliest life on Earth: single-celled prokaryotic Archaea (Hadean Eon, 3.7-4.2 billion years ago), with RNA in ribosomes translating DNA in genes into proteins3,500,000,000 photosynthesising bacteria amongst the Archaea (Archean Eon), converting sunlight into chemical energy to fuel cellular activity3,400,000,000 earliest atmospheric oxygen, present at low levels (Archean Eon)3,200,000,000 emergence of Earth’s first continents from the ocean (Archean Eon, 3.2 to 3.3 billion years ago), supporting microbial mats in Earth’s first land ecosystem2,330,000,000 the Great Oxygenation Event: 1-10 million years of rapidly accumulating atmospheric oxygen (Proterozoic Eon), a product of photosynthesis, and energy source for complex life2,100,000,000 early multicellular life, with cell-to-cell signalling and coordinated responses (Proterozoic Eon) → 37 trillion mutually-dependent cells in an adult human body1,700,000,000 earliest Eukaryotes amongst the Prokaryotes, arising from the merger of an archaeon with a bacterium: sexual reproduction with meiosis and recombination (Proterozoic Eon)890,000,000 earliest Metazoa – animals – amongst the Eukaryotes: sponges (Proterozoic Eon), prior to Snowball Earth episodes of worldwide glaciation700,000,000 Neoproterozoic Oxygenation Event: 100 million years of rising photosynthesis with lengthening days as Earth’s rotational speed slows, improving conditions for complex life635,000,000 earliest stem Cnidaria amongst the animals (early Ediacaran Period), ancestor of jellyfish and hydra: nervous system and sleep/wake cycle → without sleep we die550,000,000 earliest bilaterian animals, with left-right symmetry (Ediacaran Period): burrowing Ikaria with mouth and gut for scavenging, segmented Yilingia with paired legs and musculature for roaming540,000,000 explosion in animal diversification over 20 million years (earliest Cambrian Period); emergence of modern body plans, including Deuterostomia amongst the bilaterians: tiny bag-like body with multiple openings535,000,000 earliest chordates amongst the deuterostomes (Early Cambrian): notochord and pharyngeal gill slits520,000,000 earliest acute visual perception: compound and stalked eyes of stem arthropods (Cambrian Period) → vision catalysing animal diversification500,000,000 first colonisation of land by plants: algae of the Middle Cambrian, probably facilitated by fungi480,000,000 radiation of vertebrates amongst the chordates (Ordovician Period): aquatic with a mineralised skeleton, armour and scales445,000,000 mass extinction in two pulses across 1 million years, eliminating more than three-quarters of all species (Late Ordovician), linked to volcanic activity420,000,000 earliest jawed vertebrates amongst the fishes (Late Silurian Period) → diversification of feeding niches; capacity for yawning, now omnipresent across disparate lineages407,000,000 earliest woody stems of vascular plants (Early Devonian) → evolution driven by hydraulic constraints, pre-adapting plants for taller morphologies394,000,000 earliest tetrapods amongst the vertebrates (Devonian Period): limbs replacing paired fins; still fully aquatic385,000,000 earliest forests (Devonian Period, Cairo, New York, North America) → three-dimensional terrestrial habitat; rising atmospheric O₂ and diminishing CO₂375,000,000 mass extinction in a series of pulses across 20 million years, eliminating more than two-thirds of all species (Late Devonian), linked to climatic cooling350,000,000 earliest land vertebrates (Early Carboniferous): semi-aquatic amphibian tetrapods340,000,000 earliest fully terrestrial tetrapod vertebrates, laying amniote eggs (Carboniferous Period)251,900,000 Earth’s largest mass extinction, eliminating nine tenths of all species during 61 thousand years (Permian-Triassic transition), caused by hot and acidifying volcanic CO₂ emissions from the Siberian Traps250,000,000 earliest organismal hearing and sound production, by katydid insects (earliest Triassic Period) → surveillance, displaying and signalling; vertebrate hearing by 210 million years ago233,000,000 dawn of the modern world: major biological turnover linked to volcanism (Late Triassic) → rapid diversifications and originations of conifers, insects, dinosaurs, reptiles and stem mammals201,300,000 mass extinction event, eliminating more than two-thirds of all species (Triassic-Jurassic transition), linked with volcanic CO₂ equivalent to projections for CE 21ˢᵗ century anthropogenic emissions178,000,000 earliest true mammals amongst the terrestrial vertebrates (Jurassic Period): fur and endothermy; natural lifespan of 3,200 somatic mutations → humans averaging 47 annually135,000,000 major radiations of flowering plants and their insect pollinators in the Early Cretaceous: an “abominable mystery” (Charles Darwin, 1879)101,500,000 aerobic bacteria embed into oxic sediment of the South Pacific Gyre, reviving after 101.5 million years to grow into microbial communities66,000,000 abrupt mass extinction of non-avian dinosaurs, with three-quarters of all species, following the springtime impact of a 9-km wide asteroid at Chicxulub, Mexico (Cretaceous-Paleogene transition) → rapid diversification of flowering plants and mammals55,000,000 earliest primates amongst the mammals (Eocene Epoch): brachiation44,000,000 divergence of Old World from New World primates (Eocene Epoch): colour vision, opposable thumbs, sociality; capacity for grieving responses, a trait shared with other mammals25,200,000 earliest hominoids (apes) amongst the Old World primates (Tanzania, Oligocene Epoch): tailless, enlarged brain; dawn of speech in contrasting vowel sounds – no language without vowels16,800,000 earliest hominids (great apes) amongst the hominoid gibbons in Asia: larger body size and sexual dimorphism; nest-making, play, empathy; capacity for self-medication, as in other animals13,000,000 hominids Pierolapithecus catalaunicus in Spain, and Nyanzapithecus alesi in Kenya, possible ancestors of hominins and modern apes respectively, the former with upright posture7,000,000 earliest hominins Sahelanthropus, then Orrorin and Ardipithecus, amongst the hominids in Africa: reduced canines, arboreal habit, bipedal capability4,200,000 replacement of the earliest hominins by Australopithecus spp. in Africa: fully upright, bipedal and free-striding gait3,300,000 earliest knapped stone artefacts (Kenya): Lomekwian tools → hominin technological behaviour2. Human evolution2,800,000 earliest human, Homo sp., amongst the hominins (Ledi-Geraru, Ethiopia): rounded chin as Australopithecus afarensis, but smaller and slimmer molars as the later Homo habilis2,700,000 rise of co-existing hominin genus Paranthropus (East Africa)2,600,000 incorporation of meat and marrow into generalist diets of hominins (Africa)2,600,000 earliest stone tools produced by humans (Gona, Ethiopia): Oldowan tools, chopping through flesh, bone, bark2,588,000 start of the current geological period of Quaternary glaciation, possibly initiated by a supernova blast 150-300 light-years away, luminous as the full Moon2,400,000 Homo habilis in Africa, using stone tools for cleaving meat from bone2,120,000 earliest evidence of human ancestors outside of Africa: tool-using hominins in Shangchen, southern China2,000,000 early Homo erectus, direct ancestor of modern humans, coexisting with Australopithecus – soon extinct, and Paranthropus (South Africa): enlarged brain and smaller teeth1,800,000 migrations of Homo erectus from Africa to Eurasia (Georgia; to Lantian in northern China by 1.63 million years ago; to Java by 1.5 million years ago)1,700,000 earliest stone hand axes (Tanzania): Acheulean tools, standardised for butchering, cutting, stripping, hammering, drilling → population mobility1,500,000 earliest control of fire, by Homo erectus (Koobi Fora, Kenya) → uniquely human capability, extending the day by firelight, improving nutritive intake with cooked food1,400,000 earliest organic tools: a hand axe made from hippopotamus bone (Ethiopia) → conscious symbolism?1,400,000 replacement of Homo habilis by Homo erectus in Africa1,000,000 extinction of Paranthropus (South Africa), our last remaining sibling genus900,000 Homo antecessor in western Europe (Atapuerca, Spain), closely related to the last common ancestor of Neanderthals, Denisovans and modern humans900,000 flint scrapers associated with Homo antecessor (Atapuerca, Spain), suitable for preparing animal hides → clothing?800,000 earliest cannibalism, in Homo antecessor (Gran Dolina, Spain), practised throughout human history; social motivation?700,000 diminutive Homo floresiensis on the Indonesian island of Flores, probable descendent of Homo erectus700,000 rise of Homo heidelbergensis in Africa and Europe, possible ancestor of Homo sapiens and Homo neanderthalensis; cooking meat and starchy plants500,000 earliest abstract markings: a zigzag engraving on shell by Homo erectus (Indonesia) → uniquely human capacity for abstraction500,000 earliest use of stone-tipped spears, by Homo heidelbergensis (South Africa) for hunting large game450,000 rise of Neanderthals Homo neanderthalensis across Europe430,000 Denisovans diverge from Neanderthals (southern Siberia) → Tibetan Plateau and Laos by 160,000 years ago; subsequent interbreeding, possibly also with Homo erectus400,000 multiple hominin dispersals across Arabia (Nefud Desert), during windows of desert greening at four-, three-, two- and one-hundred thousand years ago400,000 earliest evidence of food storage for later consumption: bone marrow (Qesem Cave, Israel) → food economy, incentivised by anticipation of future need320,000 long-distance transport of obsidian for fine blades and points, and ochre for pigments (Kenya) → technological transition to Middle Stone Age during intensifying climate swings315,000 earliest representatives of our species, Homo sapiens (Jebel Irhoud, Morocco): facial and dental structure similar to modern humans, yet still archaic elongation of the braincase300,000 wooden spears and lances used by Homo heidelbergensis for hunting large herbivores (Schöningen, Germany)250,000 replacement of Homo heidelbergensis by Homo neanderthalensis in Europe, and by Homo sapiens in Africa over the subsequent 100,000 years210,000 Homo sapiens enter Eurasia (Greece): first of multiple dispersals out of Africa by humans with early modern traits, including globular braincase and descended larynx facilitating spoken language200,000 earliest adhesive: birch tar used by Neanderthals for hafting stone tools (Campitello, Italy) → pyrotechnologyIII. CULTURAL DEVELOPMENT3. Hunter-gatherer nomads176,000 earliest built constructions: underground edifices made from broken stalagmites by Neanderthals (Bruniquel Cave, France) → material culture171,000 earliest record of fire technology, by Neanderthals: boxwood digging sticks with shafts worked smooth by controlled burning (Poggetti Vecchi, Italy)170,000 widespread use of clothing, setting humans apart from all other animals, evidenced in the divergence of clothing lice from head lice (Africa)160,000 coastal shellfish harvested by Homo sapiens in southern Africa, and by Neanderthals in the Mediterranean → fatty acids boosting cognitive development142,000 earliest symbolic ornaments: marine-shell beads made by humans in Morocco, spreading to the Levant; painted beads by Neanderthals in Spain by 115,000 years ago126,000 Homo with mix of archaic-human and Neanderthal traits (Nesher Ramla, Israel): stone-tool industry, cooking meat; cultural exchange with humans?120,000 burial of dead, by anatomically modern humans in Qafzeh Cave, Israel, and by Neanderthals in Tabun Cave, Israel: mortuary rituals, mourning the dead110,000 last appearance of Homo erectus (Ngandong, Java), 1.89 million years after its first appearance → the longest enduring species of human105,000 hording of non-utilitarian objects by Homo sapiens: crystals and ostrich eggshell fragments (Kalahari, southern Africa)100,000 interbreeding of Homo sapiens with Homo neanderthalensis (Siberia) → accumulation of modern traits through gene flow100,000 toolkit for mixing and storing pigments: ochre, charcoal, bone, hammerstones, grindstones and abalone-shell containers (Blombos Cave, South Africa) → complex human cognition100,000 earliest human etchings on rock: cross-hash decorations or symbols (Blombos Cave, South Africa) → conceptual imagination90,000 manufacture of bone harpoons, for hunting catfish (Semliki river, DR Congo)90,000 fisher-hunter-gatherer Neanderthals eating mussels, crab, eels, sea bream and shark, dolphins and seals, hoofed game and waterfowl; pine-nut economy (Figueira Brava, Portugal)78,000 earliest symbolic human burial, a 3-year old Homo sapiens (Panga ya Saidi Cave, Kenya): funerary practices by our ancestors77,000 construction of bedding from sedges, topped with aromatic leaves containing insecticidal and larvicidal chemicals (Sibudu rock shelter, South Africa)75,000 earliest jewellery fashions: shifts in styles of threaded shell beads (Blombos Cave, South Africa)73,000 earliest drawing by humans: criss-crossed lines on a grindstone drawn with red-ochre crayon (Blombos Cave, South Africa)71,000 earliest heat-treatment of bladelets, for atlatl darts or arrows (South Africa): communication of complex technology → emergence of the modern mind65,000 rapid colonisation of Australia by humans during 5,000 years (ancient Sahul), transecting the continent along superhighways: maritime exploration64,800 earliest symbolic cave paintings by Neanderthals (La Pasiega Cave, Spain)?60,000 earliest notation, with notched-bone tally marks by Neanderthals (Les Pradelles, France) → uniquely human number culture and record keeping60,000 symbolic burial of dead by Neanderthals (La Chapelle-aux-Saints, France): funerary practices60,000 range expansion of modern humans out of Africa into Eurasia, beginning 60,000 years ago and enduring 10,000 years54,000 modern humans, Homo sapiens, settling briefly in western Europe (Grotte Mandrin, France)? – preceded by and preceding Neanderthal settlements51,000 a giant deer’s phalanx bone becomes a Neanderthal artist’s canvas, prepared by scraping and boiling before etching (Harz Mountains, Germany)50,000 earliest use of cord: three-plied bark fibres (Abri du Maras, France) → clothing, mats, baskets, nets, rope, snares, fishing lines, watercraft50,000 earliest eyed needle, made from bone by Denisovans (Denisova Cave, Siberia), suitable for tailoring garments50,000 Neanderthal fire-lighting technology (France): striking flint axes with mineral pyrite → wood the predominant fuel for cooking and heating until the CE 19ᵗʰ century50,000 Eurasian Homo sapiens co-existing with Homo floresiensis (soon extinct) and Homo luzonensis, interbreeding with Neanderthals and Denisovans48,000 self-medication by Neanderthals, with pain-killing salicylic acid in poplar leaves, and antibiotic-producing Penicillium mould (El Sidrón, Spain)46,000 anatomically modern humans, Homo sapiens, established in Europe (Bacho Kiro, Bulgaria), mating with Neanderthals, spreading eastwards.45,500 earliest representational art, a red-ochre composition of Sulawesi warty pigs (Leang Tedongnge, Sulawesi): narrative stories45,000 extinction of giant flightless mihirung thunder birds, hastened by human exploitation of their eggs (Australia)44,000 earliest figurative painting (Sulawesi Island, Indonesia), of therianthropes hunting anoa and pigs: mythological stories42,000 earliest musical instruments: bone and ivory flutes (Swabian Jura, Germany) → stirring the emotions with harmony, melody, rhythm, timbre; no human society without music42,000 earliest record of fish-hooks, manufactured from broken shell (East Timor): deep-sea fishing for pelagic tuna and parrotfish, sharks and marine turtles41,500 most recent reversal of Earth’s magnetic poles, lasting 500 years, decreasing stratospheric ozone, driving global climate shifts and extinction events40,000 anatomically modern humans replace Neanderthals, our last remaining sibling species40,000 earliest habitual use of solid footwear (Sunghir, Russia), opening permafrost regions to occupancy → hay socks by 5,000 years ago40,000 full development of language, facilitating efficient social bonding through gossip → over 7,000 living languages, over 2,000 vanishing40,000 earliest figurative sculpture: an ivory figurine of a therianthrope with lion’s head and human torso (Hohlenstein, Germany)40,000 earliest image of human form: a hand stencil (Maros karsts, Sulawesi)37,000 earliest artistic representation of human form: engravings of vulvas (Abri Castanet, France): fertility symbol?35,000 earliest animation in cave art (Grotte Chauvet-Pont d’Arc, France): breaking down animal movement, prefiguring cinema35,000 earliest fully human sculpture and female imagery: a mammoth-ivory ‘Venus’ figurine (Hohle Fels, Germany): fertility totem?35,000 a giant virus freezes into Siberian permafrost, melting back to virulent activity 35,000 years later32,600 food-plant processing, of dried wild oats with grindstones (Grotta Paglicci, Italy; soon appearing across Europe, Australia) → flour for storage and cooking32,000 fruits of the campion Silene stenophylla freeze in Siberian tundra, regenerating from cryobiosis 32,000 years later into fertile plants32,000 possible first human incursions into the Americas (Mexico), certainly within the next 11,000 years (New Mexico), along the coast from Siberia?30,000 earliest woven fabrics, made from dyed fibres of wild flax (Georgia) → baskets, textile clothing29,500 earliest stone statuette: ochre-tinted oolitic limestone Venus of Willendorf (Austria)29,000 earliest fishing-net sinkers (South Korea) → modern industrial fishing currently in 55% of ocean area, covering 4× agricultural area25,000 a coronavirus epidemic sweeps through East Asia, driving genetic adaptations still present in modern humans24,000 use of poison arrows, with wooden ricin applicator (Lebombo mountains, South Africa)24,000 a bdelloid rotifer freezes into ice in the Alayeza river (Russian Arctic), reviving 24,000 years later to full vigour23,000 fisher-hunter-gatherer brush huts (Sea of Galilee, Israel): sealed floor, hearth, berry and seed stockpiles, grindstones, sleeping area with grass bedding23,000 first domestication: dogs from grey wolves Canis lupus (Siberia or Japan), for companionship, hunting technology, and pulling sledges → 700 million dogs by CE 21ˢᵗ century20,000 earliest pottery vessels (Xianrendong Cave, China): cooking food in pots during the Last Glacial Maximum20,000 beginning of sea-level rise from deglaciation in a warming global climate; stabilising at today’s 120-m higher levels by c. 10,000 years ago19,000 replacement of early modern humans across Eurasia by the ancestors of today’s populations15,000 introgression of last remaining Denisovans into the modern human genome? Anatomically modern humans henceforth the only hominin15,000 colonisation and occupation of North America by humans, from northeastern Siberia over the Bering land bridge, bringing their dogs15,000 colonisation of South America (Huaca Prieta, Coastal Peru); humans henceforth occupying every continental landmass on Earth, except Antarctica15,000 semi-permanent forager settlements of Natufians (Levant), evidenced by presence of house mice15,000 earliest record of a string instrument: the musical bow (cave painting at Trois Frères, France) → music initiated outside the body15,000 earliest thaumatrope (Laugerie-Basse, France): an optical toy, creating movement by juxtaposition of images14,400 evidence of baking bread: unleavened flatbread from wild einkorn and club-rush tubers (Shubayqa, Jordan) → caries from consumption of starchy foods14,000 earliest lime plaster, used as an adhesive for hafting (Kebaran, Levant) → mortar by 3,000 years ago13,400 earliest evidence of inter-communal violence on a large scale, with projectile impacts and blunt-force trauma (Jebel Sahaba, northern Sudan): warfare and conflict driving human misery12,800 climate shift contributing to megafaunal extinctions and human cultural changes (Younger Dryas): triggered by a comet airburst over North America and Europe?12,300 earliest evidence of humans using tobacco (West Desert, North America)12,000 extinction of megafauna including woolly mammoths from continental Eurasia and North America, caused by human hunting and climate change11,700 start of the Holocene Epoch within the Quaternary Period, characterised by warm and stable climate until the late CE 20ᵗʰ century11,700 in the Mojave desert a seed germinates and grows into a deadly creosote bush, which segments to sprout new stems, sprouting and segmenting for 11,700 years11,600 earliest monumental ritual art (Shigir, Siberia): 5-m tall larchwood plank carved with human forms and signs → complex ideas expressed by hunter-gatherers4. Agricultural farming and settlementsBCE 9500 11,500 cultivation of wild barley and oats around village settlements (Fertile Crescent) → dawn of farming on the Anatolian peninsula; storable grains sustaining population growth9500 11,500 earliest monumental temple (Göbekli Tepe, Anatolia): carved stone stelae up to 4-m tall serving ritualistic purposes; associated skull cult; ceremonial porridge and beer9500 11,500 earliest use of brick architecture: sun-dried mudbricks (Anatolia and the Levant, spreading to Mesopotamia) → fired bricks by 3000 BCE (China)9000 11,000 earliest continuous settlements (southern Levant), including Jericho: stone and mudbrick architecture developing into a walled city of up to 3,000 people → modern cities of 30 million people9000 11,000 earliest artistic representation of human sexual intercourse: 10-cm phallic sculpture of sensual and tender intimacy (Ain Sakhri, Levant)8400 10,400 domestication of goats and sheep (Fertile Crescent and Turkey) → milk, meat, wool, hide and capital from 1.2 billion sheep and 1.1 billion goats by CE 2019, rising trend8100 10,100 global population of humans passes 5 million; annual energy use per person averages 1,700 kWh, 2.4× the resting metabolism8000 10,000 continental ice-sheets withdraw from Europe and North America8000 10,000 domestication of cattle, from aurochs (Near East and Indus Valley) → haulage, milk, meat, hide and capital from 1.5 billion head of cattle by CE 2019, rising trend8000 10,000 domestication of cats, from Near Eastern wildcats Felis silvestris lybica (Middle East) → 400 million domestic cats by CE 20ᵗʰ century, a substantial threat to wildlife8000 10,000 domestication of wheat (Mesopotamia): hybrid vigour efficiently converting solar energy into food energy → 772 million tonnes per year by CE 2017, using 218 million ha of land: peak production?8000 10,000 domestication of the bottle gourd Lagenaria siceraria, indigenous to Africa, in the Americas from Asian stock → global diffusion for containers, musical instruments, fishing floats8000 10,000 earliest record of artistic expression through dance, as rite of passage (engravings in Addaura II Cave, Sicily): rhythms that elevate the spirit → collective desire for cosmic order7500 9,500 domestication of chickens from red junglefowl (Southeast Asia) → meat and eggs from 25.9 billion chickens by CE 2019 and rising, 5× the biomass of all wild birds7200 9,200 earliest large-scale representations of complete human forms: lime plaster statues 1-m tall (Ain Ghazal, Jordan)7000 9,000 big-game hunting practised by females and males (Wilamaya Patjxa, Andean highlands) → strong male bias across recent hunter-gatherer societies7000 9,000 domestication of the potato (Andes, southern Peru) → 370 million tonnes per year by CE 2019, using 17 million ha of land; a food-security crop worldwide, not a globally traded commodity7000 9,000 domestication of pigs (Anatolia and China) → meat, hide, bristles, medical research and capital from 1.0 billion pigs by CE 2015: peak production?7000 9,000 rise of Transeurasian languages, with the spread of millet farming from the Liao River Valley (north-eastern China) → 80 languages now spoken from Istanbul to Tokyo6500 8,500 earliest mining of metal, to heat, hammer and grind into tools: copper for projectile points (Great Lakes, North America)6500 8,500 earliest cattle dairying (north-western Anatolia), for milk and its products of cheese and ghee: protein and fat obtained without killing the capital asset6500 8,500 beginning of a wave of migrations from the Middle East northwest through Anatolia, spreading farming practices into Europe6000 8,000 domestication of rice (Asia) → 763 million tonnes per year by CE 2018, using 166 million ha of land6000 8,000 foraging for honey (Mesolithic painting in the Araña Caves, Spain) → 90 million beehives by CE 20195900 7,900 earliest grape wine and viniculture (South Caucasus) → wine as a social lubricant, medicine and commodity throughout western civilisation5900 7,900 start of the Copper Age (Fertile Crescent), spread of copper smelting for weapons and tools5800 7,800 cultivation of cotton Gossypium barbadense (north Peru); G. arboreum cultivated in Pakistan by 5500 BCE → clothing, fishing nets, sheets, towels, rugs, wadding5600 7,600 cultivation of poppies for opium (western Mediterranean), widespread by 4500 BCE, domestication by 3100 BCE → psychoactive, medicinal and alimentary uses5500 7,500 flooding of the Black Sea from the Mediterranean Sea: perhaps the great flood of the Epic of Gilgamesh, and the biblical flood of Noah’s Ark5500 7,500 earliest salt production, by evaporation of brine (Provadia-Solnitsata, Bulgaria): preserving food, enhancing flavour → high consumption in Western diet, with no evolutionary precedent5480 7,500 extraordinarily large influx of cosmic rays from an abnormal Sun, possibly caused by solar proton events → potential for DNA damage on a global scale5200 7,200 earliest use of bitumen, for waterproofing reed-bundle boats (As-Sabiyah, Kuwait) → 65 billion tons of asphalt in roads and pavements by CE 20205200 7,200 earliest seaborne trading networks (Aegean for obsidian, Persian Gulf for Ubaid pottery), with mast and sail technology: the earliest harnessing of natural forces to replace human labour5100 7,100 ritual landscape of large-scale mustatil monuments (northern Saudi Arabia): entranceways to courtyards, chambers, orthostats; associated cattle cult5000 7,000 rise of languages with subject-verb-object syntax – as in English – from the root syntax of subject-object-verb (proto-Indo-European), and expansion westward; other combinations arise later5000 7,000 cultivation of sugarcane (Indo-China); spreading to Africa and the Americas, slave labour providing sugar to Europe and North America from the CE 16ᵗʰ century → most productive biofuel5000 7,000 domestication of tobacco (Andean Highlands, South America), spreading to North America by 1520 BCE → smoking kills 100 million people worldwide in CE 20ᵗʰ century, the worst preventable killer4800 6,800 earliest artistic representation of introspection: Thinker and Sitting Woman figurines (Hamangia culture, Cernavodă, Romania) → capacity for soul-searching and contemplation4200 6,200 domestication of maize (Mexico) → 1.15 billion tonnes per year by CE 2019 using 197 million ha; with wheat and rice accounting for 43% of all human calorie supply, using 4% of global land area4000 6,000 domestication of chili pepper Capsicum (Tehuacán Valley, Mexico), spreading rapidly into South America; brought to Europe by Columbus CE 1492 → now used daily by a quarter of the global population4000 6,000 earliest use of indigo blue, from Indigofera species, for dyeing cotton fabric (Huaca Prieta, Peru); use in Egypt by 2400 BCE, China by 1000 BCE4000 6,000 earliest board games (Egypt), moving pieces on a track according to outcomes determined by a throw stick → computers outperform humans in all board games by CE 20163600 5,500 earliest engineering of water delivery and storage, for people, animals and irrigation (Jawa, Jordan) → landscape engineering of dams, levees, ditches in China by 3100 BCE3500 5,500 earliest ploughs for tilling soil (Italy): harnessing domestic animals for work; landscape engineering for crops3500 5,500 rising human fertility, enabled by earlier weaning of babies fed with milk of domestic ruminants (southern Britain)3500 5,500 domestication of horses (Central Asian steppes), revolutionising mobility, economy, warfare → transport, haulage, meat and capital from 59 million horses by CE 20193400 5,400 earliest wheeled wagons (Germany, Slovenia, Near East) → breakthrough in haulage and locomotion: mechanical advantage equalling ratio of wheel to axle radii, moderated by friction; nanoscale wheel and axle by CE 20073300 5,300 start of the Bronze Age (Near East), bronze replacing copper for weapons, tools, nails, utensils; mixing of Eurasian peoples → rapid westward spread of farming, conversion of forest to dairy pasture3300 5,300 cultivation of cocoa trees for chocolate (upper Amazon) → domestication in Mesoamerica by 1600 BCE, sacrificing productivity for stimulant and disease-resistance genes3300 5,300 earliest numeral systems: pictograms of economic units (Uruk, Mesopotamia) → cuneiform sexagesimals in Mesopotamia by c. 3200 BCE, and hieroglyph decimals in Egypt by 3100 BCE3200 5,200 full writing (cuneiform in Mesopotamia, hieroglyphics in Egypt) using the rebus principle → bookkeeping, instruction, commemoration, scripture, prayer, historical records3150 5,150 organic medicinal remedies from herbal wines (Egypt)3100 5,100 earliest evidence of the plague (Latvia), possibly driving 3ʳᵈ millenium BCE migrations across Europe and Asia3100 5,100 development of governance systems with the rise of Uruk, city of 30,000 residents (Sumer civilisation, Mesopotamia), and cities of the Indus Valley → class divisions; living off the labour of others3050 5,050 earliest standard weights for balance scales, and cubit length (Mesopotamia and Egypt): objective frames of reference for valuing commodities → integration of markets across Western Eurasia within 2 millennia3000 5,000 cultivation of oil palm (west and central Africa) → 411 million tonnes of oil-palm fruit per year by CE 2019 using 28 million ha, largely converted tropical forest3000 5,000 global agricultural land use per person peaks at 2.72 ha → 0.66 ha by CE 2016 with improvements in yield3000 5,000 synthetic glass (Phoenicia) for beads → ingots, vessels by 1500 BCE; CE 1ˢᵗ century mirrors and window glass; 7ᵗʰ century stained-glass windows; 13ᵗʰ century eyeglasses; late-20ᵗʰ century float-glass skyscrapers3000 5,000 earliest metal swords, for combat and prestige (Arslantepe, Turkey) → essential battle weapons through nearly 5 millennia to CE 1918 and the end of World War I3000 5,000 earliest use of a Solar calendar year of 365 days, anchored by spring and autumn equinoxes (Egypt and old Sumer)2800 4,800 global population of humans passes 50 million; annual energy use per person averages 2,100 kWh, 3× the resting metabolism2720 4,750 in the North American White Mountains a seedling grows into a bristlecone pine tree, which sustains production of viable seeds over a lifespan extending beyond 4,700 years2650 4,650 earliest use of a lunar calendar year of 12 months, and each hour as one-twelfth part of the day or night (Shulgi, King of Ur, Mesopotamia)2650 4,650 magnetic compass, used to orient chariots (Emperor Hoang-Ti, China, recorded in the Zizhi Tongjian CE 1084, Thoung Kian Kang Mou edition) → navigation at sea by CE 300, Tsin dynasty, China2650 4,650 earliest regulation of wildlife exploitation: every fisher and hunter taxed one-tenth of their take (pharaoh Djoser, Egypt, recorded in the Famine Stela)2650 4,650 earliest massive stone monuments: step pyramid tomb of pharaoh Djoser in Saqqara, Egypt; contemporaneous pyramidal architecture in Caral-Supe, Peru; megalith at Stonehenge, Britain2550 4,550 earliest dictionary: cuneiform tablets translating between Sumerian and Eblaic (Ebla, Syria)2550 4,550 earliest writing on papyrus: Diary of Merer, documenting construction of the Great Pyramid (Wadi al-Jarf, Egypt) → parchment by 200 BCE, Greece; paper from pulp by 100 BCE, China2550 4,550 architectural precision: the Great Pyramid of Giza (Egypt), taller than any other building in the world for 3,800 years2500 4,500 earliest locks (Egypt): door bolts → emergence of private ownership and privacy; lock and key by 1500 BCE for unguarded secrecy2500 4,500 earliest animal husbandry to produce a hybrid: the kunga, foal of a female domestic donkey and male wild ass (Umm el-Marra, Syria), used for diplomacy, ceremony, warfare2350 4,350 earliest government reforms, addressing taxes and corruption (Uru-KA-gina, King of Lagash and Girsu, Mesopotamia)2340 4,350 first emperor of a state: Sargon the Great, Akkadian Empire (expanding across Mesopotamia, Levant, Anatolia) → beginnings of artistic emphasis on the person of the ruler as an individual2300 4,300 earliest records of marriage ceremonies, uniting a man and a woman (late 3ʳᵈ millennium BCE, Akkadian clay tablets)2200 4,200 decline of Bronze-Age civilisations in Egypt, Greece and Mesopotamia, and terminal decline of Indus Valley civilisation, caused by centuries of drought beginning c. 2200 BCE2100 4,100 earliest code of law, applying general principles to particular cases (Code of Ur-Nammu, Sumerian King of Ur, Mesopotamia)2030 4,050 earliest recorded poetry (Nippur, Iraq): a Sumerian love poem of passionate ardour, expressing an emotional truth about the human spirit2000 4,000 extinction of last remnant population of woolly mammoths, on Wrangle Island, Arctic Sea2000 4,000 earliest use of coal as fuel (Inner Mongolia and Shanxi, China), for smelting copper, cooking, heating → peak global coal production of 8.2 billion tonnes/year in CE 20132000 4,000 earliest abacus, replacing tables of multiplication, reciprocals, powers (Old Babylonians, Mesopotamia c. 2000-1600 BCE) → nanoscale abacus storing numerical information in individual molecules by CE 19961900 3,900 earliest map of a territory: 3-dimensional topography covering 30 km of the Odet river valley, sculpted to scale on a schist rock slab (Saint-Bélec, France)1900 3,900 establishment of a 7-day week (Assyria and Babylonia)1850 3,850 earliest alphabetic script (Proto-Sinaitic, Sinai and Egypt) → economy of signs1850 3,850 earliest architectural arch, a Canaanite gate (Ashkelon, Israel) → breakthrough in construction of gateways, vaults, doors, windows, bridges: converting tensile stress into compressive stress1825 3,850 earliest record of contraception: Kahun Gynaecological Papyrus (Lehun, Egypt) → distinction of sexual intercourse from reproduction5. Empires and conquestsBCE 1800 3,800 beginnings of complex societies: Babylonian civilisation in Mesopotamia, 1800 BCE; Olmec civilisation in Mesoamerica, 1800 BCE; Shang dynasty in China, 1600 BCE; New Kingdom in Egypt, 1600 BCE1800 3,800 earliest extraction and working of iron (Anatolia) → alloying with carbon to make steel in Cyprus by 1100 BCE1800 3,800 earliest prose fiction: Epic of Gilgamesh (in cuneiform on clay tablets, Ur, Mesopotamia), on the tragicomedy of life, love won and lost, and inevitable death1750 3,750 earliest principles of insurance against loss or damage, for maritime shipments (Code of Hammurabi, Babylon)1750 3,750 earliest cultivation of the tea plant Camellia sinensis (China, early 2ⁿᵈ millennium BCE) → now the most frequently consumed beverage worldwide, with many health benefits1650 3,650 harvesting of latex from the Castilla elastica tree to make rubber for balls and figurines (Mexico): the first plastic polymer → unsurpassed sliding friction and durable elasticity1650 3,650 earliest team sport: rubber-ball game played in an architectural ballcourt (Paso de la Amada, Mexico) → social compacts; decapitation rituals by CE 5001650 3,650 earliest porcelaneous high-fired ceramics (Piaoshan kiln, China): fragile when whole, indestructible as broken shards → true porcelain by early CE, China1650 3,650 earliest stencils of archetypes, for hyperbolae, ellipses and spirals, used in the Gathering of Crocus wall painting (Thera, Aegean Sea): knowledge of the foundations of geometry1630 3,650 earliest planetary observations, of the motions of Venus (reign of Ammisaduqa, king of Babylon)1550 3,550 reckoning with fractions and geometry (Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, Egypt)1520 3,550 first accurate timepiece: an outflow water-clock (Amenemhet, court of Amenhotep I, Egypt) measuring night-time; shadow clocks and sundials regulating daytime worker shifts1500 3,500 earliest depiction of joyful and uninhibited celebration by ordinary people (Minoan Harvester Vase, Agia Triada, Crete)1330 3,350 early depictions of mutual affection: Nefertiti holding the hand of her husband pharaoh Akhenaten, and gentleness: Ankhesenamun anointing her husband pharaoh Tutankhamun (Egypt)1300 3,300 earliest notated music: Hurrian Hymn to Nikkal (in cuneiform, Ugarit, Syria); the singing voice carrying further than the spoken voice, conveying feeling1200 3,200 sea-going trade in silver and dyes by Phoenicians, connecting the Levant with western Europe across the Mediterranean to the Atlantic Ocean1050 3,050 start of the Iron Age (Aegean; Britain by 800 BCE), iron replacing bronze for tools and weapons1000 3,000 use of hydraulic plaster, mixing lime with silicates (Tell es-Safi/Gath, Israel) → concrete in Ancient Rome by CE 70, the dominant building material of modern times1000 3,000 earliest depiction of the cosmos: a bronze disc inlaid with gold symbols of the Sun, Moon, and stars including the Pleiades cluster (Nebra, Germany)950 2,950 first Jewish temple (King Solomon, Jerusalem) → rise of Judaism for a chosen people900 2,900 earliest centre of higher learning (Taxila University, India) → Plato’s Academy in Greece by 387 BCE; Taixue University in China by CE 3; Al-Karaouine University in Morocco by CE 859; European medieval universities900 2,900 accurate prediction of lunar eclipses (Berlin Gold Hat, Germany)900 2,900 standardization of value: adoption of cowrie shells as money (Middle Western Zhou period, China) → cowrie monetary systems in Asia and West Africa during 3 millennia850 2,850 earliest professional army (Lacedaemonians of Sparta, Greece, described in Xenophon’s Constitution of the Lacedaemonians 388 BCE)776 2,800 first Olympic games (Olympia, Peloponnesus, 776 BCE)700 2,700 first book of European literature: The Iliad (Homer, Greece), an epic poem on the loss and suffering caused by war700 2,700 Archimedes’ Screw, used to irrigate Sennacherib’s elevated garden (river Tigris, Mesopotamia), described by Archimedes 4 centuries later650 2,650 earliest collection of scholarly texts, on 32,000 cuneiform tablets: the Library of Ashurbanipal (Nineveh, Iraq)630 2,650 earliest use of coinage (Ionia or Lydia, Anatolia): many denominations of stamped electrum, a gold-silver alloy → government-controlled economy of transaction costs600 2,600 first circumnavigation of the African continent (Phoenicians from Arwād, reported by Herodotus in The Histories 430 BCE)550 2,550 height of Greek civilisation (Greece, 6ᵗʰ to 4ᵗʰ centuries BCE) → foundations of Western philosophy, ethics, poetry, drama; first democracy 508 BCE550 2,550 earliest cartography: a map of the known world, by Anaximander (Greece, c. 550 BCE, reported in Strabo’s Geographica 7 BCE)550 2,550 first Persian Empire (Cyrus the Great, Persia), connecting the Mediterranean to the Indus Valley → code of just rule that respects others’ faiths550 2,550 training in surgery and anatomy, described in the Susruta Samhita (northern India, 6ᵗʰ century BCE)550 2,550 professional policing, investigating criminal cases, addressing injustices (the paqūdu of Babylonia c. 550 BCE)500 2,550 construction of a navigable canal from the Nile to the Red Sea (Darius I of Persia) → Suez Canal by 1869, the shortest maritime route between Europe and Asia500 2,500 earliest use of cannabis as a psychoactive substance (Jirzankal Cemetery, China) → modern narco-trafficking spread by counter-drug interdiction450 2,450 collection of the sayings of Confucius (551-479 BCE, China) into the Analects, founding Confucianism, with a role for every person in society, and universal education450 2,450 earliest cast iron artefacts (Jiangsu, China)450 2,450 collection of the Torah and other scriptures into the Hebrew Bible → Christian Old Testament 500 years later, including the divine authority of the Ten Commandments400 2,400 Siddhārtha Gautama (Buddha, c. 480-400 BCE, Ancient India) lays the foundations of Buddhism, with joy as a calling towards the path of nirvana; rebirth in hell for misconduct400 2,400 earliest in-patient hospitals (King Paṇḍukābhaya, Sri Lanka) → professional care for the sick375 2,400 idea that justice and virtue are inherent qualities of inner harmony (Plato’s Republic, Greece): limits to the liability of external forces for conduct → moral conscience of Christianity364 2,400 first sighting of another moon: Jupiter’s Ganymede, discovered with the naked eye (Gan De, China) → rediscovery by Galileo Galilei in CE 1610, using a 20× telescope350 2,350 concept of time-velocity space applied to the motions of Jupiter (Babylonia)350 2,350 development of formal systems of reasoning, by logical deduction from axioms and postulates (Aristotle, Greece) → scientific disciplines350 2,350 understanding of the emotions as dimensions of feeling that affect judgement (Aristotle, Greece): anger, love, fear, shame, kindness, pity, envy, emulation350 2,350 political theory of social welfare (Aristotle, Greece): a state tax on assets of affluent citizens for distribution amongst the poor320 2,350 compilation of the Tao Te Ching (China) on peace and war, founding Taoism in ritual cultivation of life’s inherent natural and spiritual forces, benefitting all300 2,300 mass persuasion, using silver coins stamped with the head of previous legendary ruler Alexander the Great (Lampsacus, Turkey): appropriating history to glorify the present300 2,300 earliest economic exploitation of chicken outside East Asia (Southern Levant); now the world’s most ubiquitous species of livestock, a principle source of protein300 2,300 postulation of Euclidean geometry of flat surfaces (Euclid of Alexandria, Greece) → first printed edition of Euclid’s Elements, CE 1482280 2,300 first hypothesis that Earth revolves around the Sun (Aristarchus of Samos, Greece, reported in Archimedes’ The Sand Reckoner, c. 260 BCE)250 2,250 first estimation of π within known limits (Archimedes, Greece), describing circles, discs, spheres, cones, orbits, loops, spirals, waves → method of calculus250 2,250 earliest accurate estimates of the circumference, diameter and tilt of a spherical Earth (Eratosthenes, Greece, c. 250 BCE, reported by Pliny CE 77)250 2,250 earliest water